Prepared by the researche : Prof.Dr. Salah Mohamed Ibrahim Ahmed, Professor of Economics, Dean of the Faculty of postgraduate studies and scientific research, White Nile University, Kosti, Sudan.
Democratic Arabic Center
Journal of cultural linguistic and artistic studies : Thirty-fourth Issue – December 2024
A Periodical International Journal published by the “Democratic Arab Center” Germany – Berlin
Nationales ISSN-Zentrum für Deutschland
ISSN 2625-8943
Journal of cultural linguistic and artistic studies
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Abstract
The aimed of the research to shed light on the problems that hinder the process of public education, higher education, to know the dimensions that affect the progress of the teaching, learning process in Sudan, the research found the following most important results, through the narrative, the historical dimension, education in Sudan was based on strong foundations and pillars before independence, as education at that time was based on structural foundations from the British system, the research confirmed that education was effected by the ideology, ideas of the political regimes that govern the country according to its principles, its beliefs, visions, future plans, the research proved that public budget on education is characterized by weakness, scarcity, at a rate ranging between 2% to 10% of the total public budget, the most important recommendations, are paying attention to the educational, learning process, returning to the roots, origins that the colonialists established from the structure of the British education system, which was laid on the foundations, sound systems, the authorities of the Sudanese government should focus on supporting basic, secondary, university general education, and increasing wages, salaries to create job satisfaction for general education teachers, university professors in order to achieve the goals of education outcomes.
Introduction
Education, in its two branches, upbringing and higher education and scientific research, suffers from chronic problems that have paralyzed Sudan and placed it among developing countries. It has also affected its economic system. Since independence in 1956, education has continued to suffer from problems and dilemmas that have accumulated and worsened and have not found effective solutions. Rather, education in Sudan has continued to go through devastating crises represented by the weakness and scarcity of spending on it, and fluctuations in the status of the stages of the educational ladder from the primary stage, primary stage, general secondary stage, middle and intermediate, and higher secondary, and fluctuations in the time periods of study starting from the 4-year-4-3-year system, the 6-year-3-3-year system, the 8-year-3-year system and other fluctuations in the years of study for the stages that the learner goes through. All of these fluctuations have confused the educational ladder and affected the educational curricula, in addition to the interventions imposed by the ruling political regime according to its ideology. These fluctuations have had a clear impact on the outcomes, and we will address this topic from several dimensions that have a clear impact on education. Which is called general education and includes Khalwas and pre-school education (kindergarten), primary, intermediate and secondary. As for higher education, it includes universities, colleges and institutes, whether governmental or private foreign private, so that we will address each dimension separately, and try to review the beginning of the history of education and how it began and the extent of the Sudanese people’s response to this idea? Who are the pioneers and supporters of the idea so that it can be absorbed and accepted? And was there approval and response to educating both sexes, males and females, or was there acceptance of educating males and rejection and prevention of educating females? All these questions will be answered by narrating the historical and social dimension, and we will also try to take you on a tour of the problems, obstacles and challenges that education in Sudan has faced since its inception, some of which have been overcome, while many have become obstacles and stumbling blocks that have hindered the progress of education, accumulated, worsened and prevented its progress and prosperity, leaving a gap that has contributed to the lack of education for children, adult illiteracy and dropout as a result of other dimensions that have played a major role in the delay and decline of education in Sudan in a striking manner and questioning the reconsideration of this vital and important subject through which countries are measured in terms of progress, advancement, development, prosperity, culture and civilization.
The first section:
The methodological framework and previous studies:
(1-1) The research problem:
The problem lies in the obstacles, impediments and challenges that faced general education and higher education and hindered its progress, and led to its decline and the weakness of its outputs and the inconsistency of its educational programs with the requirements of the labor market and the current era and the educational and functional gap left by the problems of education issues and the continuous and worsening increase of these dilemmas led to a decline in the scientific, cognitive and cultural balance of education outputs and the graduation of a huge and huge number of learners without a broad scientific reserve and a shallow culture that does not help it in global and local competition in the labor market and the variables and developments of the requirements of the era that are renewed moment by moment and second by second that do not know stopping, and require keeping pace and proceeding with what it imposes on you of advanced knowledge without going back.
(2-1) Importance of the research:
The importance is limited to the role that education plays in the aspects of continuous daily life that know no limits to science and knowledge, as scientific and cognitive progress has become a sea without a coast, and education is the key to growth, development and prosperity, which leads to industrial, technological and environmental progress. The utmost importance is focused on helping decision-makers and policymakers, curricula and academic evaluation in the Ministries of Education and Higher Education and Scientific Research in making sound decisions and educational programs that lead to quality outputs.
(3-1) Research objectives:
1- Shedding light on the problems that hinder the progress of general education and higher education.
2- Knowing the dimensions that affect the progress of the educational and learning process in general education and higher education.
3- Learning about the history of education in terms of the idea and who are the pioneers of education in Sudan.
4- Familiarizing with the obstacles and difficulties facing education since its inception and how to overcome them.
5- Drawing the attention of the authorities to pay attention to education and address the problems facing education with the aim of quality of its outputs in Sudan.
(4-1) Research hypotheses:
1- There is a significant relationship between the historical dimension, general education and higher education.
2- There is a significant relationship between the ideological dimension, general education and higher education.
3- There is a significant relationship between the economic dimension, general education and higher education.
4- There is a significant relationship between the financial dimension, general education and higher education.
(5-1) Research methodology:
The historical descriptive statistical analytical method was used.
(6-1) Reasons for choosing the topic:
The painful situation that education is witnessing from the deterioration and collapse of infrastructure, weak educational outcomes, weak salaries and wages of teachers and professors, the strike of human cadres, the instability of education, and the overlap and confusion of the academic calendar.
(7-1) Tools and means of collecting research data:
Using a questionnaire, interviews, field visits, practical observation and real experiences.
(8-1) Research limits:
place limits: The Republic of Sudan, the Ministries of General Education and Higher Education and Scientific Research.
Time limits: The time period 1956 – 2022.
Objective limits: Historical, ideological, economic and financial dimensions and their impact on general education and higher education.
(9 – 1) Sources of collecting research data:
The research sources include primary sources, which are reports, field visits, observation and practical realistic observation, and secondary sources include books, references, magazines, periodicals, official newspapers and the Internet.
(10 – 1) Research structure:
The research consists of five chapters: The first chapter: The methodological framework and previous studies, the second chapter: The importance of education and its components and the historical dimension, the third chapter: The ideological-political dimension, the fourth chapter: The economic dimension, and the fifth chapter: The financial dimension, theoretical analysis, results and recommendations for proposed solutions and a list of sources and references.
(11-1) Previous studies:
No previous studies were obtained that addressed the same topic with its dimensions as in the current study. Rather, educational problems remained discussed in workshops, meetings and forums, and no conferences were held to study the issues and problems of education in its school and university aspects. Moreover, the authorities in Sudan did not care about educational issues, but rather the problems that education suffered from were addressed through short emergency plans that dealt with solving only one problem and postponing the other problems indefinitely. Educational problems were also viewed as not posing a danger at the present time, and therefore their obstacles and future repercussions were not considered. We hope that this research will move a still person like throwing a stone into still waters.
The second topic: The importance of education, its components and the historical dimension
(1-2) The importance of education and its components
Countries rise, grow and develop through education, and from this standpoint, any country that wants to advance in all fields must put education in its sights and as one of its top priorities, because education is the main axis and the main pillar in the process of building state structures, and the most important component of prosperity and development, and the state rises and advances through education, and we find that the countries that have advanced have not advanced except by giving the utmost importance to the issues of education, higher education and scientific research, and therefore we find that there are many experiences that have achieved unparalleled successes because their countries have given attention to the advancement of education and allocating a large percentage of public expenditures to spending on education in its general and higher aspects, and therefore they have achieved what they aspire to in terms of economic, social and political goals and comprehensive sustainable growth and development, and a living example of this is what the Asian tigers have achieved in terms of a major economic leap and leap, as well as what Malaysia and Rwanda, wounded by war, have achieved and their emergence into the vast space, and it can be said that any progress in all aspects of life is not It can only be achieved by advancing and paying attention to education and allocating a large space and position to solve the problems and issues of education and making education a top concern and priority of the state’s tasks. Also, the state that neglects education issues suffers from backwardness and falling behind the ranks of advanced countries. If one looks at the history of peoples and civilizations, their renaissance, cultures and heritage; It becomes clear to him that building and developing countries and societies begins and continues from pre-school education and the school gate, as it is the first nucleus in forming the structure and the basic foundation for any civilized, social, cultural or political work, because the school is the basic building block for building the human resource from which life begins and societies are built, and the optimal framework for social, cultural, renaissance and civilizational upbringing, as it plays an important role in the process of conveying and consolidating educational and societal messages, and guides the person towards planting the seed of truth and a broader horizon and realizing the features of goodness, beauty and virtue and developing morals and the noble spirit that seeks to make others happy, as forming the most beautiful and ideal person is considered one of the most important necessities of the philosophy of civilization and social sciences in particular, and the problems of education, higher education and scientific research are complex and thorny issues in our current era, due to their functional and structural interconnection between them, so we cannot in any way separate their variables as they are linked to each other, so we find the vast majority of global educational and teaching systems suffer from educational and teaching problems related to the foundations and basic elements of the educational and learning process, in terms of teachers and learners, Curricula, school construction, and administration are of a comprehensive nature that affects their cultural and civilizational identity, and affects the extent of their ability to meet the needs of the labor market and the era and achieve the aspirations and desires of their societies, which forced nations to focus all their efforts and endeavors to rebuild their educational systems permanently and continuously in line with their visions and future plans. In view of these problems and issues that plague the basic education system, the crisis of higher education and scientific research, countries must strive to restore what can be restored and maintain what can be maintained with the aim of the quality of services and outputs provided to society on the one hand, and the degree of functionality of these services with the renewal and development of societal needs on the other hand, especially what is required by the planned and targeted development programs in the short and long term, and that the widening gap between the requirements of the labor market and the capabilities of graduates (based on educational curricula) requires revisiting the policies of higher education and scientific research by finding mechanisms to control the quality of education and improve its outputs to reach a distinguished quality in terms of its inputs, processes, and outputs. In this regard, all problems and crises have been revealed. The education systems, higher education and scientific research suffered from patterns of fragility and fluctuations in making sound and decisive decisions to correct the course of these systems, and remove the distortions and obstacles that constitute a major challenge between the higher education system and the pre-higher education system, which led to the disappearance and lack of integration and coordination between the two systems in developing curricula and educational methods and the close connection between them for the quality of the output.
(2-2) The historical dimension of education in Sudan:
Education in Sudan According to the Transitional Constitution of the Republic of Sudan 2005, education in Sudan for the primary stages should be compulsory and free [1]. According to World Bank estimates for 2002, the literacy rate among adults aged 15 years and above is 60%, and in 2000, the rate was estimated at about 58% (69% for males and 46% for females), and the illiteracy rate among youth (15-24 years) is estimated at about 23%.
The educational process is managed under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education in addition to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research.
(3-2) Traditional education in Sudan (edit section, 2022)
The Arabs’ entry into Sudan was preceded by the existence of a number of ancient kingdoms with educational and pedagogical systems, as the inscriptions and letters found in northern Sudan confirmed that the Sudanese had known writing since the Kingdom of Napata around 750 BC.2 With the entry of the Arabs and Islam into Sudan, the spread of Quranic schools known locally as Khalwas, whose role was limited to memorizing the Holy Quran and the Noble Hadith, in addition to teaching the principles of the Arabic language and arithmetic, since the middle of the seventh century AD. The emergence of Khalwas in Sudan (edit section, 2022)
Its first appearance was during the rule of Sheikh Ajib Al-Manjalak 1570-1611 and it began as a compromise solution to the control of two religious trends over education in Sudan at that time, namely the scholars of the Maliki school who refused to teach or pray boys in mosques, and the Sufi sheikhs who tended to seclude themselves away from people, so the Khalwas were built as houses attached to mosques.3 They are known as The Khalwa has many names such as the Quranic, the Zawiya, the Jami’ or the Masid, which is also used as a name for the mosque. The Khalwa is also usually known by the name of its Sheikh. The names of some famous Khalwas have dominated their entire region, such as the Khalwa of Wad al-Fadni and the Khalwa of Wad Kinan in the Gezira region in central Sudan, the Khalwa of al-Ja’ali in Kadbas in northern Sudan, the Khalwa of Sheikh Abu Izza in western Sudan, the Khalwa of Sheikh Ali Batay in Hamshkoreb in eastern Sudan, and others.
(4-2) Education during the era of the Turkish-Egyptian rule (edit section, 2022)
In 1863, five schools were opened in the capitals of the directorates, and these schools followed the Egyptian curriculum in education.
The first modern regular school was opened in Khartoum during the Turkish-Egyptian era in 1855 to educate the children of Turkish employees under the supervision of Rifa’a Rafi’ al-Tahtawi during his exile to Sudan. 7
(5-2) Education during the Condominium Era
Education Goals (Edit Section, 2022)
The British “James Curry” was appointed Director of the Education Department and Supervisor of Gordon Memorial College in 1900. He believed that education should be linked to the country’s economic needs and set goals for education in Sudan, which can be summarized as follows:
- Creating a class of skilled craftsmen that did not exist at that time.
- Spreading education among the people to the extent that helps them know the basic rules of the state apparatus, such as the justice and impartiality of the judiciary.
- Training Sudanese to fill minor government positions in the administration apparatus. This is to replace Egyptian and Syrian employees.
- Another undeclared goal: which is to work on training Sudanese to work in the army so that the administration can gradually get rid of Egyptian officers and soldiers whose connection with Sudanese soldiers sometimes led to rebellion, influenced by the liberation movements in Egypt.
These goals governed education in Sudan from the beginning of the century until the establishment of the Bakht al-Rida Education Institute.
The educational ladder
It consists of three stages, each of 4 years: 1. Primary. 2. Elementary or intermediate. 3. Secondary.
Kerry began establishing schools with one primary school in Omdurman in 1900, the number increased to seven schools by the end of the year, and the graduates of the Khalawi accepted them because there were no primary schools at that time. He also established a college to train teachers and judges in Omdurman in 1900, in addition to the Industrial School in Omdurman. Primary schools were later established to represent the beginning of the regular educational structure, and students then joined primary schools. (Edit section, 2022)
Gordon Memorial College
Two months after the Battle of Karari, Lord Kitchener called on the British people to donate to establish a university college in Sudan to immortalize the name of Gordon Pasha. Kitchener estimated his financial needs at one hundred thousand pounds sterling. The British response was greater than Kitchener expected, as one hundred and twenty thousand pounds were collected in six weeks. Lord Cromer laid the foundation stone on 5 January 1899. Kitchener then left Sudan for South Africa. Kitchener’s vision for the college was to be a beacon of higher education in Sudan despite its humble beginnings as a primary school. Many opposed his idea, claiming that it was “overly ambitious” and that investing the money in establishing primary schools would have been more beneficial. However, time proved the foresight of Kitchener and James Curry, who said: “Although the impact of the college is limited now (at its establishment), it will increase with the completion of other educational institutions that feed it, and its value after fifty years will be incalculable.” 8 Kitchener returned from South Africa to officially open Gordon Memorial College on 8 November 1902. In 1903, the Gordon College buildings were completed, and its nucleus was the Teachers College, which was moved from Omdurman to the college buildings, in addition to the transfer of Khartoum Primary School to the college buildings. A new training center was added to these schools, equipped with a workshop where students practiced carpentry and engineering drawing and received the principles of mechanical engineering. The year 1905 witnessed the beginning of the application of the secondary education system after the primary stage at Gordon College. The study was divided into two sections, the first section for two years to graduate surveyors and the second section for four years to graduate assistant engineers and observers. A special wing was added to the college for the military school to graduate Sudanese officers. There was a focus on students of African origin, and therefore only a limited number of students of Arab origin were accepted. 1906. A department was established to graduate teachers for primary schools, with a study period extending for four years after primary school. Thus, Gordon College became specialized in preparing administrators, technicians, and teachers to work in the government service. On February 29, 1924, Kitchener Medical School was opened. It was established at the expense of the Sudanese government and the endowments of Ahmad Hashim al-Baghdadi, the Iranian merchant who donated all his wealth to the college. Kitchener School is considered the first medical school in North Africa to be established on a consistent and integrated curriculum and was not bound by the curriculum of medical colleges in England. Gordon College was transformed into a secondary school, as the primary department was abolished and it became composed of six departments: Sharia law. – Engineering. – Teachers’ department. – Clerks’ department. – Accounting department. – Department of Science. (Edit section, 2022)
(6-2) Gordon Memorial College in 1936 University of Khartoum now
In 1937, it was decided to link Gordon College curricula to the Cambridge University High School Certificate Examination in Britain, and obtaining this certificate qualifies the student to study at British universities. Establishment of a higher college of veterinary medicine in 1938, followed by the College of Engineering in 1939 and another for arts and law in 1940, and in 1944 all higher colleges except Kitchener Medical College were combined into one college, which became the first university college in Sudan, and the first batch of Gordon College students sat for the University of London certificate in 1946, and in 1946 the secondary section was transferred from Gordon College to the city of Omdurman to become Wadi Saydna and Hantoub School. In 1951, Kitchener Medical College was merged with Gordon College to form the University College of Khartoum, but the college remained in a relationship with the University of London. In 1956, the University College of Khartoum was transformed into the University of Khartoum, thus becoming the first African college affiliated with the University of London to become an independent university granting its own degree.
(7-2) Omdurman Scientific Institute
Mosque circles were organized in 1901 as a reaction to foreign education. Then, the colonial government agreed, based on the request of scholars, most notably Sheikh Qadi al-Islam Muhammad al-Badawi, to establish the Omdurman Scientific Institute, in which studies began in 1912 according to the old Al-Azhar system in Islamic and Arabic sciences and some modern sciences. Two regulations were drawn up for this system, one in 1913 and the other in 1925, and the three sections were integrated: primary, secondary and higher since 1924. It began to give globality from this date, and its graduates worked in teaching in institutes, the Ministry of Education, Sharia judiciary, preaching and guidance. A large number of its students joined Gordon College, Al-Azhar colleges, Dar al-Ulum, the University of Khartoum, Cairo University and some European universities. The institute followed this approach for a long time. In 1942, senior professors were borrowed from Al-Azhar colleges and institutes to raise the level of study in the secondary and higher departments, which today have become an institute for higher education students from all Sudanese secondary institutes. It has two colleges, one for Islamic law according to the curriculum of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar Al-Sharif, and the other for the Arabic language according to the curriculum of the Faculty of Arabic Language at Al-Azhar as well. In 1948, a Supreme Council was established for the Institute, consisting of eighteen members from the senior officials of the Ministry of Education, the University of Khartoum, the Institute, the Judicial Service, the Ministry of Works, merchants and notables, headed by the Chief Justice. The Council took great strides in the Institute, and established a study list for the new system that began to be implemented from that date. Four groups are now graduating from the secondary school certificate, which included the addition of the English language, natural and social sciences, and expansion in sports. In 1955, the Religious Affairs Department was established and became the supervisor of the Institute, setting its budget and supervising it technically and administratively through its Sheikh, the Sheikh of Scholars, and its Scientific Board of Directors. It did a lot for the Institute, as it reviewed the curricula and formed committees to develop these curricula that achieve the new basic goals. For the first time in the history of the Institute, the Department established military training teams and focused on improving the conditions of teachers. Students of knowledge flocked to the Institute from all over Sudan and African countries, from Shinqit, Nigeria, Uganda, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Senegal, and others, and from Aden, Hadramaut, and other Islamic countries. Asian, until the number of its students in 1959 reached about 1250 students, and the number of its teachers was about sixty teachers from Al-Azhar, Dar Al-Ulum, Cairo University, the Sudanese Ministry of Education, and its graduates. It has internal housing for more than three hundred students from the Sudanese regions and Islamic missions. It has a huge Arabic and English library that rivals the largest libraries, and includes most of the Islamic heritage. In addition to the institute, there are secondary institutes in the capitals of the regions in the north, east, west, and Al-Jazeera, and about forty primary institutes spread throughout the cities of Sudan. 9 The scientific institute developed in the mid-sixties of the twentieth century to become the University of Omdurman Islamic in 1965. (Edit section, 2022)
(8 – 2) The Technical Institute
In 1946, four training schools (technical schools) were established for students to join after completing the primary (middle) school. On the same date, a technical institute was established, later known as the Technical Institute, which later developed into the University of Sudan for Science and Technology (Edit section, 2022)
(9 – 2) Private Education
In 1927, the first private intermediate school was established in Omdurman through popular effort. A group of Sudanese participated in its establishment, headed by Sheikh Ismail Al-Azhari Al-Kabir, the Grand Mufti of Sudan. Sheikh Ahmed Hassan Abdel Moneim donated his house and a blank check without specifying a number that could be used for any number in defiance of the British, who claimed that there was no money for this purpose. In 1942, the activity of the Graduates Conference in the field of education emerged, as three intermediate schools were opened, one in Al-Gold, another in Madani, and the third in Omdurman. (Edit section, 2022)
(10-2) Bakht al-Rida
After the end of the Gordon College students’ strike in 1930, the Governor-General appointed a committee to investigate the education systems. J. S. Ascott, the Chief Inspector of Education, submitted a memorandum criticizing the education policy and systems, and calling for fundamental reforms. Six months after receiving Ascott’s memorandum, the Governor-General appointed a committee headed by Winter (the Director of the Education Department at the time), which included Mr. Ascott and the Administrative Secretary. F. L. Griffith was appointed as its rapporteur. The committee adopted Scott’s views on focusing on primary schools and preparing teachers. One of the committee’s most important directions was to establish a teacher training institute in a rural area and develop curricula for preparing teachers. The task of establishing this institute was entrusted to Mr. Griffith, who contacted the directors of the directorates to facilitate his task, but he did not find approval except from the director of the Ad Duwaym Directorate, a former classmate, who gave him a plot of land north of Ad Duwaym (the current location of Bakht al-Rida). He helped him with prisoners to clean the land and carry out construction work using local materials. In October 1943, the Sergeants’ School (a school for preparing teachers) was transferred from Gordon College to Bakht al-Rida 7. The duration of study at the beginning of the Sergeants’ School and in Bakht al-Rida in its early years was four years after completing the primary school, then it was increased to five years in 1940, and to six years in 1944. The first technical inspection department in the history of education in Sudan was established. This department began its activity in Bakht al-Rida, and then it had branches in the directorates. The Bakht al-Rida department maintained its privacy related to knowing the needs of Teachers in the field of training, with follow-up of the implementation of curricula in the field, and the Central Teachers College was opened in Bakht al-Rida to train intermediate school teachers, and Bakht al-Rida entered in 1944 into a new experiment to develop the talents of children who completed the first educational stages in the field of free reading and self-education and to benefit from free time in directed activities, and to achieve this purpose, boys’ clubs were established under the supervision of the institute, and the activity began in the city of Ad-Duwaim, then the clubs spread to other cities, and in order for these clubs to achieve their educational mission, a publishing office was established in 1946 in Bakht al-Rida, and its first production was the Boys’ Magazine, which was issued in the same year as the first magazine addressing children in the Arab region. (Edit section, 2022)
(11 – 2) Adult Education (Edit section, 2022)
In 1944, the adult education experiment began in the village of Umm Jar as the first experiment in Sudan, and the experiment proved successful, which prompted the Ministry of Education to allocate a special department for adult education in 1952 headed by the ministry. (12-2) Women’s Education Girls were educated in Quranic schools known as Khalwa, which taught religious sciences. The aim of these schools was not to prepare them to join the regular public education system. However, through the efforts of Sheikh Babiker Badri (the pioneer of women’s education in Sudan), the government established five primary schools for girls by 1920. The pace of development was slow due to the conservative customs and traditions that prevailed in Sudanese society at that time, which did not accept girls continuing their education after reaching adulthood. The situation remained as it was until 1940, when the first girls’ school was opened, the Omdurman Middle School for Girls. By 1955, the number of girls’ intermediate schools in Sudan had reached ten. In 1956, the Omdurman Secondary School for Girls was opened, which included about 265 students. It was the only secondary school for girls run by the government. By 1960, the number of primary schools for girls had reached 245, while the number of public secondary schools did not exceed 25 schools, and only two schools for higher secondary schools. There were no Vocational training schools for girls, with the exception of the Nurses Training College, in which only eleven students were enrolled. It is noted that nursing is considered by many Sudanese to be a respectable profession suitable for women. Girls’ education achieved great gains within the framework of the reforms witnessed by the education sector in Sudan in the sixties and seventies of the last century, as the number of girls’ schools rose to 1,086 primary schools, 286 intermediate schools and 52 vocational schools for girls, equivalent to one-third of the total government schools in Sudan. Ahfad University College (Ahfad University for Women) was the shining beacon in the history of women’s education in Sudan, and its first brick was laid by Sheikh Babiker Al-Badri. As a primary school in 1922 AD, in Omdurman before it developed into a full-fledged university where 1800 female students receive various types of sciences and academic and professional studies such as training female teachers to teach in rural areas. (Edit section, 2022)
(13-2) Nuns’ School in Khartoum
The Egyptian educational mission schools contributed greatly to the field of public education in Sudan, as their work was initially limited to educating the children of the Egyptian community, but later began to accommodate some Sudanese students. Among the largest of these schools are Gamal Abdel Nasser Secondary School in Khartoum and the Coptic College Primary, Preparatory and Secondary, and the Egyptian role in education in Sudan increased, so that its schools spread to a number of Sudanese cities such as the city of Al-Abyad in North Kordofan State, and the establishment of Cairo University, Khartoum branch (currently the University of Nilein).
Among the community schools in Sudan are also Christian missionary schools such as the American School, the Missionary School in Khartoum Bahri, the Comboni Schools in Khartoum, Khartoum Bahri, Omdurman and Port Sudan, and the Union School in Gedaref. The activity of missionary or evangelical schools extended to include a number of southern states in Sudan, which had a clear impact in spreading Christian teachings in southern Sudan. In addition, there are schools for other foreign communities, most of which operate in Khartoum at various levels, and some of them provide their services to all students, including Sudanese students, while others limit their educational activity to students and pupils of the communities to which they belong. Among these educational institutions are the Armenian School, Turkish, Canadian, Ethiopian, British schools and others. These schools teach the language of their original countries in addition to the Arabic language. (Edit Section, 2022)
(14 – 2) Education in the South (Edit Section, 2022)
In 1904 AD, the first government school was opened in the Bahr al-Ghazal Directorate (Governorate) in southern Sudan as an experiment that did not witness expansion due to opposition The missionary missions prevailing there, and in 1947 the Juba Conference was held to consider the future of southern Sudan. The conference recommended unifying the education policy between the northern and southern regions of Sudan. In 1948, the first Sudanese Minister of Education, Professor Abdul Rahman Ali Taha, who was the deputy dean of Bakht al-Rida, was appointed. This development came after the establishment of the Legislative Assembly in 1949. The Legislative Assembly issued a decision to make Arabic the language of instruction throughout Sudan. In 1954, an international committee was assigned to make recommendations on secondary education, which included experts from Britain, Egypt, and India and a Sudanese rapporteur. The committee’s recommendations included: adopting Arabic as the language of instruction at all levels of education in southern Sudan, abolishing the use of English or local dialects in teaching, and adopting Arabic as the language of instruction in all secondary schools in Sudan. Section.
Three: The Ideological-Political Dimension
(1-3) Education after Independence (Modify Section, 2022)
After independence in 1956, Sudan inherited an educational system built on British curricula and structure. Successive national governments introduced changes to the educational system to achieve their goals, ideologies and ideas and keep pace with the development in the country and its political circumstances. The changing, and the demand for education increased after independence in a way that exceeded the state’s allocated resources. In 1956, the education budget amounted to only 15.5% of the state’s general budget, equivalent to 45 million Sudanese pounds, to support about 1778 primary schools with about 208,688 male and female students, 108 intermediate schools with 14,632 male and female students enrolled, and 49 government secondary schools with 5423 male and female students. The adult literacy rate reached 22.9%, and despite the efforts of successive governments, the rate had risen by 1990 to about 30%, in the face of the steady increase in population and birth rates. (2-3) Education in the era of May (edit section, 2022).
The government of Jaafar Nimeiri, which took power in 1969, considered: “The education system in Sudan does not adequately meet the needs of social and economic development.” Therefore, it proposed to restructure it extensively. A national education conference was held in 1969, and the restructuring continued throughout the seventies until the new educational ladder was completed.
General education (edit section, 2022)
The first amendment to the educational ladder (edit section, 2022)
Its preparation was supervised by Dr. Mohi El-Din Saber, the Minister of Education at the time (and Director of the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization) and consists of:
- A primary stage for six years
- A general secondary stage as a preparatory school for three years
- A secondary stage that includes three types of schools:
- Academic higher secondary schools for three years that prepare students for higher education.
- Commercial and industrial technical schools to prepare a skilled technical cadre.
- Educational institutes to train primary school teachers.
High school students qualify through the Sudanese Certificate Examination for the post-secondary education stage represented by universities and higher technical institutes.
The number of public secondary schools in the 1980s was more than one-fifth of primary schools, i.e. an average of 260 public secondary schools compared to 1334 primary schools, while the number of higher secondary schools was only 190 schools. At this stage in particular, the number of private schools with different levels of teaching quality doubled, especially in the triangular capital (Khartoum, Khartoum Bahri and Omdurman).
(3 – 3) Technical and vocational education (edited section, 2022)
Despite the focus on technical and vocational education proposed by the government in 1980, with the encouragement of international advisory bodies, the number of vocational schools established in Sudan did not exceed five schools classified as academic higher secondary schools. The number of students enrolled in the academic secondary school course in the academic year 1976-1977 was eight times the number of those enrolled in technical schools, which created a shortage of skilled trained workers. In addition, technical school graduates suffered from problems of lack of training, the distance of curricula from the reality of work, lack of equipment, and low morale among students and teachers, which led to the previous education system focusing on theoretical academic teaching, and the low turnout among students in technical schools.
Obstacles (edit section, 2022)
By the end of the Nimeiri era in the eighties, education had expanded significantly, and qualified schools spread throughout various rural areas, even to southern Sudan, benefiting from the short period of peace that Sudan enjoyed after the agreement with the Anya-Nya movement.
In addition to the establishment of a significant number of teacher training and qualification institutes, education was affected by the economic difficulties that Sudan suffered from during that period, as spending on education and teachers’ salaries decreased.
(4-3) Higher Education (Modified Section, 2022)
In addition to the existing universities, which are: University of Khartoum – Cairo University, Khartoum Branch. (University of Nilein, n.d.)
In October 1955 of the same year, the first Egyptian university in Sudan was established as a branch of Cairo University.
Cairo University, Khartoum Branch – Omdurman Islamic University.
Nimeiri established universities: University of Gezira in Wad Madani – University of Juba in Juba, which moved during the war years to the capital, Khartoum – Omdurman Ahlia University, which was established by popular effort in the city of Omdurman in the capital, Khartoum, in addition to eleven university colleges and twenty-three institutes. The colleges were specialized institutes that granted certificates and diplomas for shorter study periods than required in universities.
(5-3) Education in the Salvation Era (Edited Section, 2022)
During the reign of the ruling regime for the period from 1989, the regime began the horizontal expansion of education in Sudan without a careful and accurate study by expanding in establishing and opening schools, colleges, institutes and public and private universities, without prior knowledge of the financial situation for the purpose of preparing the infrastructure, as approval was given and universities were opened with incomplete infrastructure and a lack of financial resources, deterioration and collapse in the educational infrastructure, a shortage of qualified trained cadres, weak salaries, wages and talents for general education and higher education, a shortage of aids, equipment, means and libraries and a shortage of educational books. The beginning was unsuccessful for political and ideological expansion, as the National Salvation Government announced comprehensive changes in the field of education in Sudan in September 1990, and 400 million Sudanese pounds were allocated for this purpose, and the government promised to double the amount in the event of the success of the first phase to change the existing education system in line with meeting the needs of Sudan-, and the new educational philosophy was based on establishing a reference framework for this Reforms, in which education is based on “the permanence of human nature and religious values”, to be accompanied by a curriculum that includes all schools, institutes and universities and consists of two courses: a course The number of students enrolled in the academic secondary school course in the academic year 1976-1977 was eight times the number of those enrolled in technical schools, which created a shortage of skilled trained workers. In addition, technical school graduates suffered from problems of lack of training, the distance of curricula from the reality of work, lack of equipment, and low morale among students and teachers, which led to the previous education system focusing on theoretical academic teaching, and the low turnout among students in technical school institutes and universities and consists of two courses: a compulsory course and an optional course. The first compulsory course applies to all students without exception and in it all branches of knowledge that will be studied are inspired by the Holy Quran and recognized books of Hadith. As for the optional course, students are allowed to choose some specializations according to individual desires and inclinations. These broad reforms faced opposition from within the Sudanese educational institution itself. In early 1991, a presidential decree was issued stipulating the necessity of doubling the number of students accepted into universities, and that Arabic would become the language of instruction in Sudanese universities instead of English. The new educational system took into account “extending the productive life of the citizen”, reducing the cost of education, and achieving a boom in the rates of increasing educational institutions in it. The primary and intermediate stages (preparatory) were merged into one stage called the basic stage, which lasted eight consecutive years. Thus, the primary certificate exam was cancelled as a solution to the problem of many Sudanese students stopping at the primary education stage without receiving Adequate education, and this measure provided the opportunity for a large number of them to continue their studies for two years or more. 10
The second amendment to the educational ladder (amended section, 2022)
The current educational ladder consists of three levels:
- The first level is the pre-school education stage and consists of kindergartens and daycare centers for children, and children are registered in it from the age of three or four until the age of six, and the duration of this stage is one or two years according to the desire of the parents.
- The second level is the basic stage, and begins with the first grade at the age of 6-7, and up to the eighth grade, and the volume of educational material and academic subjects increases annually, and with it the effort expended to absorb and interact with it doubles in line with the mental and physical development of the male and female student, and when either of them reaches the age of 13-14, they are prepared to sit for the secondary school entrance examination certificate.
- The third level is the multidisciplinary and field-based secondary school stage with unified certificates (academic, technical, religious). This level of study includes more advanced study methods, in addition to some basic academic subjects such as chemistry, biology, physics, geography, etc. The study period extends to three years and the ages of students range from 14-15 to 17-18. In addition to these types of schools, there are other government institutes and schools parallel to the official educational system such as religious, vocational and industrial institutes and vocational training centers 10
(6-3) University education (edit section, 2022)
List of universities in Sudan
University education in Sudan was limited to one university, the University of Khartoum – which ranked fourth in Africa academically[citation needed] – which was founded by the British during the period of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium rule under the name Gordon Memorial College, in addition to another university affiliated with the Egyptian educational mission in Sudan, which is Cairo University, Khartoum branch. University education witnessed an expansion that began during the era of President Jaafar Nimeiri (1969-1985 AD), when the University of Juba was established in the southern region. The expansion continued after that until the number reached more than fifty universities and higher institutes, public and private, in all the states of Sudan, teaching many scientific, literary and artistic specializations, and receiving many foreign students due to its good regional reputation in terms of the academic level, teaching staff and the certificates it grants, in addition to the low cost of living compared to other countries. The University of Khartoum was once compared to elite international universities such as the British University of Cambridge [citation needed] and many prominent Sudanese experts graduated from it regionally and internationally. Among the prominent universities in Sudan are the University of Omdurman Islamic, the University of Medical Sciences and Technology (Mamoun Hamida), Ahfad University for Girls and others. Fourth topic: The economic dimension Tuition fees at Sudanese universities increased by more than 200% after a strike by school teachers in several states in Sudan due to their low salaries, with the implementation of a comprehensive closure of government schools, which is the third closure in one month. University students, led by the University of Khartoum and the University of Sudan for Science and Technology, also marched to the Ministry of Higher Education to protest the increase in tuition fees that were imposed and implemented recently. The students described the university fees as “exorbitant” and that they come as a prelude to the privatization of government universities, raising slogans including “No to the commodification of education” and “Yes to free education for all.” Following these protests, the University of Sudan announced the suspension of studies indefinitely. The tuition fees crisis had escalated in several universities, including the University of Khartoum (the oldest Sudanese university). Sudanese universities entered into strikes during the past year, and due to the accumulated economic crises surrounding Sudanese citizens in several sectors, those belonging to the public and higher education sectors found themselves in the midst of these crises and had no solution but to use the weapon of sit-ins, which they first started with, then developed To strike and organize protests by students after they lost any hope in the response of the concerned authorities, and the universities indicated that they threw the ball into the court of the responsible authorities, who did not leave them any choice regarding their failure to “finance the requirements of the educational process and implement the slogan of completely free education”, other than imposing tuition fees to support the requirements of higher education, and the extended university education crisis is the result of decades, as the previous regime began, after the coup it carried out in 1989, to issue decisions called the “Higher Education Revolution” and the new government at that time began to expand horizontally under the pretext that the legacy of the previous education system during the era of the government of Sadiq al-Mahdi did not allow for the absorption of more than 6% of the examinees for the Sudanese certificate each year, and the idea was to distribute higher education institutions in the states instead of crowding them in the capital, but this project was not accompanied by any noteworthy development, but rather universities were established amidst scarce resources in the states, and the number of universities in the capital, Khartoum, was doubled while the resources and services remained the same by approving private universities, and after the December revolution, the Minister of Finance in the first government of Abdullah Hamdok, Ibrahim al-Badawi In light of the structural crises that the Sudanese economy is suffering from, with the increase in the wages of state employees, including teachers and university professors, by 569% according to the job ladder, which created a deficit in the general budget due to the increase in government consumption and public spending on wages and talents and the decline and weakness of production, and this also led to an increase in the inflation rate due to the issuance of large quantities of Sudanese pounds. Five months after the decisions of the Chairman of the Sovereignty Council, Lieutenant General Abdel Fattah Al-Burhan, which he imposed on October 25, 2021, he issued a decision to dissolve the boards of directors of public universities and dismissed 30 of their directors. Observers described that decision as an encroachment on the independence of universities and an escape from the commitment to responsibility towards the salary structure of university professors, especially since the “Professional Union of University Professors” had decided to strike, as a result of which university studies were suspended for months in protest against the Ministry of Finance’s refusal to adopt a decision that had been issued by the resigned Prime Minister Abdullah Hamdok, and it was supposed to make adjustments to the salary structure to improve the conditions of university professors,” said Salah Mohamed Ibrahim, a professor at the White Nile University in White Nile State, “The problems of higher education and scientific research in Sudanese public and private universities lie in the increase in tuition fees by more than 200%, especially in applied colleges, most notably medical and engineering sciences in universities in the capital, Khartoum, as the new tuition fees, according to the increase, range around more than two thousand dollars in public universities for special admission and private universities, and in theoretical colleges less than that, and in the states, tuition fees are less than those set in universities in Khartoum.” Ibrahim added, “The state of higher education and scientific research in Khartoum has become extremely difficult and is plagued by problems of living hardship and crushing inflation. The student needs daily expenses for his meals and his movement to and from the university, in addition to other educational aids. There are also registration fees, fees for obtaining the card and obtaining certificates after graduation and the graduation ceremony, and other costs.” He stressed that “the lack of security, the fluctuation of the academic year in universities in the capital, Khartoum, and the high cost of housing in The boarding schools, in addition to the disparity in tuition fees, have prompted many families to transfer their children to private and public universities in the states, especially outstanding students who benefit from the scholarship opportunities provided to them by the Ministry of Higher Education, which imposed on private universities to accept 2% of outstanding students. He explained that “this situation created a reverse migration to the states in search of stability and a safe life, and for students to be close to their families, as large numbers of state students were suffering from the deterioration of university conditions due to the instability in Khartoum.” Ibrahim pointed out that “although the universities in the states contained a large number of those who came to them and benefited from the scholarships, tuition fees remain an obstacle standing in the way of many students from continuing their education. Even if the problem of fees has been partially solved, the crisis of expenses and other problems remain, such as power outages for long hours, scarcity of drinking water for several months of the year, and high prices of gas, gasoline, bread, etc. There are families that support three or four children, all of whom are in universities and need additional sources of income. We find that many families cut back from their living expenses to educate their children, especially in applied colleges.” Such as medical sciences and nursing sciences, which are in high demand due to the availability of the internal and external labor market. Commenting on the continued increase in tuition fees, he said, “The increase in tuition fees included foreign students from neighboring countries who began to return to their countries to complete their studies there.” He added, “Ironically, the economic crisis, along with the increase in tuition fees, forced most Sudanese families to immigrate with their children to complete their studies in other countries such as Egypt and Turkey, which are less expensive compared to Sudan.” (Independent Arabia – Hassan Hamed, Mona Abdel Fattah)
Section Five: The Financial Dimension
We will review financial policies, their types, objectives, and tools, as it should be according to modern data and tools, and financial policy: Fiscal Policy: Fiscal policy is defined as a policy that links spending and government revenues that were put in place to confront economic fluctuations; This is in order to reduce or eliminate unemployment rates and inflation rates, in addition to achieving sustainable economic growth that can be controlled, as governments stimulate the economy in cases of recession by increasing the money supply, while in cases of economic expansion, the government limits rapid economic growth by imposing taxes to achieve a budget surplus, and also so that revenues exceed expenditures to operate independently of monetary policy, which attempts to achieve the same goals by controlling the money supply (Ahmed, 2009). When the executive authorities prepare the general budget, they do not take into account spending on education, but rather make spending on education a lower priority and do not allocate a specific percentage of the budget to it. Accordingly, spending on education remains at a modest percentage, which has affected the progress of performance and the advancement of education. Sudan, as a developing country, did not look at education issues and problems from a realistic perspective with an economic dimension, and did not give importance to spending on education. Public budgets were prepared according to the vision of the ruling regime and strengthening and consolidating its pillars. Spending was largely on security and defense due to the frequent military coups. The state budget, in terms of public expenditures, was directed to the military and security strategy, as is the case in African countries that did not witness stability in their ruling systems. Spending on the security and military side occupies 80% of the total public budget, and thus spending on education and health is reduced. Therefore, we find that the cycle of poverty prevails in these countries from the spread of illiteracy, malnutrition, weak national income, and living hardship. Therefore, the countries did not focus on spending on education and allocated a small percentage in the budget that we are ashamed to mention, and sometimes it weakens and decreases until it reaches 1.3% of the total budget, while spending is spent on running the head of the ruling structure at a large rate. Therefore, this scarcity of spending on education directly affected education and the weakness of its outcomes. Education, the collapse of the educational infrastructure from collapsed, cracked schools that do not encourage the teaching and learning process, and the means, tools and equipment that discourage and frustrate the spirits, and this was reflected in education and its decline in a remarkable and terrifying manner. As well as the process of horizontal expansion in public education and higher education without an increase in spending, but rather an unusual decrease in the percentage of spending, as well as making room for public education and private and foreign higher education, and increasing the percentage of private admission to government universities by almost 50%, and that government universities spend a large percentage of their own resources on wages and talents, and thus there became a major financial dilemma and other financial problems that hindered the progress of education and weakened its performance and stagnated in an unprecedented manner.
Financial Policy Tools
The policy tools are represented by government spending, subsidies and taxes, and changing any of them leads to a change in the level of total demand in society, and thus affects the level of economic activity. Changing taxes may affect aggregate demand indirectly by affecting the level of consumption and investment, which are two main components of aggregate demand, and thus this affects the level of national product, the level of employment, and the general level of prices. Under conditions of recession or depression, the objectives of macroeconomic policies focus on raising the level of national product and its growth rate, in addition to raising the level of employment. Therefore, an expansionary fiscal policy is followed by increasing government spending or reducing taxes, which leads to an increase in aggregate demand, and thus both the level of employment and the level of national product increase, and the economic growth rate rises (Ahmed, 2009). The opposite occurs under inflationary conditions, where a contractionary fiscal policy is followed by reducing government spending or increasing taxes, which leads to a decrease in aggregate demand, and this limits inflation rates (Enaya, 2006). Economic growth should range between 2% and 3% annually, and natural unemployment rates should be between 4.7% and 5.8%, and inflation should be at its natural level, which is 2%. Among the tools used in fiscal policies are the following (Draz, 2002): Taxes: Taxes include both income and financial gains obtained from investments, real estate, and sales. Taxes provide the income that funds the government, but they are not desired by most people, because many taxable entities have low incomes that do not enable them to pay the taxes due. Government spending: As the population ages, the costs of medical care and social security increase. Government spending means the state’s spending on goods and services such as purchasing military equipment (tanks – aircraft) and spending on public facilities and services (roads – building dams) and the salaries of judges, army officers, and salaries and wages of employees working in ministries and agencies (Al-Massir, 1990, p. 22) and so on. Government spending determines the relative weight of both the public and private sectors in the country. By changing government spending, the level of aggregate demand is affected, and thus the level of national product, employment, and the general price level. Taxes include both direct taxes, which are imposed on individuals’ incomes, and indirect taxes, which are imposed on goods and services (). We find that the most important types of monetary policy tools are represented in the following: A/ General tools are open market operations, discount rate mechanisms, and control of legal reserves. B/ Optional tools include control over the bond market’s limit requirements, control over consumer and real estate credit, Q instructions, moral persuasion, and issuing directives (Abdullah, 2003). Monetary policy works hand in hand with fiscal policy to achieve economic goals and avoid the phenomenon of inflation. We also find that the most important goals of public finance are as follows: 1/ Controlling consumption. 2/ Mobilizing savings. 3/ Directing public spending. Public spending is of special importance and has occupied a prominent place in financial studies, not only because it is a means to satisfy public needs, but also because it is the only reason that the traditional theory focused on for the state to obtain public revenues. It is also a tool among other financial tools, and its role is clear in achieving economic stability. Traditional thought as a whole was associated with the concept of the guardian state, whose expenditures are characterized first by their small size, i.e. the necessity of limiting public spending, restricting it to the narrowest limits and limiting it. Perhaps the idea of the economist (Say) and his famous phrase: (The best expenditures are the smallest in size) is the best expression of this trend. Secondly, the neutrality of this public spending, and that it does not affect the national economic balance, nor the economic and social structure of the state (Farhoud, 1981, p. 18) Public spending: is cash amounts paid from the public treasury to satisfy public needs. This concept includes three elements: 1/ Cash amounts. 2/ The value of the expenditure is paid from the public treasury 3/ The goal is to satisfy public needs that achieve a public benefit that is not enjoyed by a specific individual or a specific entity, and this requires the economy to rationalize public spending, meaning not to expand it. And to adhere to the neutrality of public spending and limit it to enabling the state to carry out its activity (Al-Massir, 1990, p. 104)
Effects of fiscal policy:
The effects of fiscal policy differ based on the basic orientations and goals of its subjects, as its effects differ from one class to another in society, and the most important of these effects are the following:
1- The effect of tax reduction on the middle class, which is usually the largest economic group in the state, as this class is forced to pay more taxes than the wealthier upper classes in cases of economic decline and high taxes (Shamiya, 1991, p. 190)
2- Expansionary fiscal policies cause an increase in the deficit, and thus reduce growth, and follow austerity policies.
3- The increase in wages causes inflation, thus trying to shrink the economy and harm the country’s overall economy.
– Investors bidding on the local currency, thus increasing the cost of export more than import, which causes a shift to buying more foreign goods, and a decrease in demand for local goods, thus causing an imbalance in the trade balance (Abdullah, 2003)
Public spending rules: 1/ The rule of maximum benefit. 2/ The rule of economy and non-waste.
Public spending factors: are as follows: 1/ Satisfying a public need 2/ The level of economic activity. 3/ The state’s ability to obtain public revenues. 4/ The inevitability of preserving the value of money. 5/ The general collective benefit (Al-Massir, 1990, p. 54)
Apparent reasons for the increase in public spending:
There are apparent reasons for the increase in public spending, which are:
1/ The decrease in the value of money (inflation). 2/ The change in the financial rules of government accounts. 3/ The expansion of the country’s territory and the increase in the number of states leads to public spending. (Al-Massir, 1990, p. 29)
The real reasons for the increase in public spending: There are real reasons for the increase in public spending, which are as follows:
1/ Administrative reasons. 2/ Economic reasons. 3/ Social reasons. 4/ Political reasons. 5/ Financial reasons. 6/ Security and defense reasons (Shamiya, 1991, p. 205).
The objectives of financial policy: Financial policy seeks to achieve the following objectives (Al-Massir, 1990, p. 22)
- Financial balance: This means using the state’s resources in the best way. For example, the tax system should be characterized by the qualities that make it suitable for the needs of the public treasury, in terms of flexibility and abundance, and at the same time suit the interests of the taxpayer in terms of fair distribution, collection dates, economy, etc., and also loans should only be used for productive purposes, etc.
- Economic balance: meaning reaching the optimal production volume, which means that the government must balance the activity of the private and public sectors to reach the maximum possible production. The more private projects are capable of producing than public projects, the more the government must refrain from direct intervention, and limit its activity to guidance through advertisements and taxes if necessary.
- The intermediate goal of financial policies is to influence the elements of total spending (consumer spending + investment spending + government spending + net external spending). In other words: managing actual total demand and controlling its fluctuations in a way that enables achieving the desired level of total demand necessary to achieve the full operating income for the community’s materials (Enaya, 2006)
The research reached the following results:
1/ Through the narrative and historical dimension, education in Sudan was based on strong pillars and foundations before independence, as education at that time was based on structural foundations from the British system.
2/ The research confirmed that education was affected by the ideology and ideas of the political systems that govern the country, and thus changes occurred in education to achieve the goals and ideology of the ruling party, its principles, beliefs, visions and future plans.
3/ The research proved that the economic living conditions, the instability of security and political conditions, and this economic dimension greatly affected the stability of education and the improvement of the education environment, and the deterioration and deterioration of education conditions as a result of the economic deterioration and economic distress.
4/ The research proved that public spending on education is characterized by weakness and scarcity, ranging from 2% to 10% of the total general budget, and the lack of interest of those who set general budgets in spending on education, and the lack of interest of the executive authorities in spending on education and giving it top priority and allocating a large percentage of the total budget to education.
5/ The research proved the deterioration and deterioration of education conditions, which was reflected in the weakness of education outcomes and the collapse of the infrastructure of general education and university higher education, and the increase in the loss of learners and dropout in the education of young people, adolescents, young adults, adults, the elderly and women.
6/ The research confirmed the spread of Khalwas, kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, and universities, especially private, national and foreign education, to a large extent, and thus the state’s policies have been directed towards privatizing public education and higher education.
7/ The research proved that women’s education has recently spread and expanded significantly and remarkably, as females outperformed males in all Sudanese certificate exams, primary and intermediate, and women excelled in higher education in Sudanese universities.
8/ The transitional period came and abolished the primary and secondary stages, and returned the third intermediate stage without studying and did not find a suitable school environment for it by providing classrooms separate from the primary stage, and confusion occurred in the prescribed educational curriculum, and this was the result of a sectarian and intellectual dispute between the previous regime and the transitional regime.
Recommendations:
1/ Paying attention to the educational and learning process and returning to the roots and origins that the colonizer established from the structure of the British education system that was established on sound foundations and systems.
2/ The Sudanese government authorities should focus on supporting basic, secondary and university general education, and increasing wages and salaries to create job satisfaction for general education teachers and university professors in a way that achieves the goals of education outcomes.
3/ The state should adopt a free education policy to provide and expand opportunities and accommodate a significant number of people from all segments of Sudanese society, and fill the gaps in educational loss and school dropout for children, young people and the elderly, and educate women and adults.
4/ The Sudanese government should give priority to spending on education, both general and higher, by allocating a significant percentage of no less than 50% of the state’s general budget and specifying years to focus on spending on education in a large way to address the structural imbalances, distortions and obstacles facing the renaissance of education.
5/ The government should establish a fixed system for the educational ladder and curricula that are consistent with global developments, and move away from ideologizing education, politicizing it according to the ruling regimes, and taking education out of the circle and control and influence of the ruling regime.
6/ The government should seek to improve the economic conditions of the people by improving the Sudanese economy by increasing production and productivity, and creating wide job opportunities to accommodate the public in all areas of economic activities and reducing the unemployment rate.
7/ The government should not expand horizontally in schools and universities recently, and find a way to solve problems and overcome all obstacles and difficulties that education in Sudan is currently suffering from, according to a specific study and programming.
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2/ Ibrahim Ahmed Al-Adawi, (1977), Sudan’s Awakening, Anglo-Egyptian Library, Cairo.
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17/ The website of the Independent Arabic newspaper, dated 4/1/2023.
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