Editor’s Note: Maryam Rezaeizadeh has specialized in researching the situation of women in the Middle East and is a former consultant for the Middle East Perspectives Project.
By Barbara Slavin, Distinguished Fellow, Middle East Perspectives
Two years after the death of a young Kurdish woman, Mahsa Amini, in the custody of Iran’s so-called morality police, Iranian women face a mixed picture in terms of their social and civil rights.
Large numbers of women are appearing in public without headscarves and a newly inaugurated government includes a woman cabinet minister, a female vice president in charge of the environment and a woman spokesperson. Despite these efforts, the number of women in the government of President Masoud Pezeshkian is fewer than during the two terms of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005-2013) and only slightly higher than during the tenure of Hassan Rouhani (2013-2021). There remains skepticism about the depth of these gestures, as Iranian women continue to face substantial structural barriers and cultural attitudes that hinder progress toward gender equality.
Still, Pezeshkian appears to be an improvement over his predecessor, Ebrahim Raisi, whose death in a helicopter crash in May precipitated snap elections in June. Raisi’s time in office saw a complex interplay between progressive strides in certain areas and regressive policies in others and his legacy remains a topic of significant debate. Under Raisi, women faced numerous challenges, including increased enforcement of dress codes, reduced political participation, economic barriers, and restricted access to reproductive health services. However, there were also efforts to promote female entrepreneurship, some increased employment opportunities, and expanded educational programs. Furthermore, the “Women, Life, Freedom” movement that erupted after Amini’s death on Sept. 16, 2022 emerged as a powerful response to systemic oppression and gender-based discrimination, gaining both national and international attention and underscoring the global significance of women’s rights in Iran.
Challenges
Under Raisi, there was a notable crackdown on women’s appearance, with harsher penalties for those deemed non-compliant with a strict Islamic dress code. This policy increased public and private scrutiny of women’s attire, further restricting their freedoms and mobility. For example, on July 12, 2022, the Iranian government declared a new national “Hijab and Chastity Day.” In reaction, Iranian activists organized a “No to Hijab Day,” where numerous women shared videos or photos of themselves without head coverings or burning scarves. Many women were reportedly detained for protests and social media posts associated with this movement. Raisi also sought to have a new harsh law on hijab enforcement passed by parliament.
A reduction in women’s public and political participation was also a significant concern. The number of women in governmental and decision-making positions declined, limiting their ability to advocate for their rights and interests within the system. Notably, the parliament saw a decrease in female representatives, with women holding only 17 out of 290 seats, which became 16 after one member died of COVID-19.
Economic and employment barriers also persisted. Despite some efforts to promote female employment, women continued to face significant challenges, including informal and vulnerable employment, wage disparities, and gendered disadvantages. Based on the World Bank Gender Portal Data in 2022, for instance, 38.3 percent of women in Iran were in informal employment with little access to social protection or safety nets. The unemployment rate for women remained significantly higher than that for men, 18.9 percent compared to 10.4 percent. Women entrepreneurs’ access to loans and financial services also remained limited despite government initiatives promoting entrepreneurship. This restricted the growth of women-owned businesses and their contribution to the economy.
In the realm of health and reproductive rights, women faced restricted access to services. The administration imposed stricter regulations on family planning and contraceptive availability, leading to increased maternal health risks and unwanted pregnancies. According to the Guttmacher Institute, these restrictions led to a decline in the use of modern contraceptive methods, contributing to increased maternal health risks. The unmet need for contraception in Iran is estimated to be around 10 percent, exacerbating the challenges women face in maintaining their reproductive health and planning their families.
Additionally, budget cuts reduced funding for women’s healthcare programs, particularly in rural and other underserved areas. According to the WHO, a health emergency appeal for Iran in 2023 secured only 30 percent of $45 million sought.
The number of government-funded family planning clinics decreased. According to the Tehran Times, the budget for family and youth support programs also declined, dropping from 63 trillion rials ($1.5 billion) in 2022 to 37 trillion rials ($900 million) in 2023.
Digital surveillance and censorship further exacerbated the challenges faced by Iranian women. According to Freedom House, Iran’s internet freedom score was only 16 out of 100 in 2023, reflecting extensive government control over online activities. Women activists encountered intensified surveillance. This climate of fear and self-censorship limited the effectiveness of digital activism, as many women hesitated to speak out or organize online due to the high risk of repercussions. Moreover, the government restricted access to digital platforms commonly used by women for advocacy and activism, hampering their ability to organize, share information, and mobilize support for their causes. According to the 2023 World Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, Iran ranks 177 out of 180 countries, reflecting severe restrictions on press freedom and digital access.
Achievements
Despite these challenges, there were notable achievements for Iranian women even during Raisi’s presidency. According to the United Nations Development Program, initiatives aimed at empowering women entrepreneurs led to significant successes, with women starting and growing businesses. These efforts not only provided economic benefits but also strengthened women’s roles in society. For example, the ZymoHouse initiative by Maliheh Habibi showcases how women can lead in tech and innovation by developing eco-friendly products and contributing to sustainable development.
Additionally, Iranian women have been transforming their roles within families and society, taking on leadership positions and advocating for greater gender equality. This shift is helping to reshape traditional societal norms and promote broader participation of women in various aspects of life.
Efforts to promote female employment also showed some positive results in terms of women’s employment in the technology and science sectors according to the OECD’s 2023 Social Institutions and Gender Index. One significant example is a recent initiative that created jobs for over 3,000 women heads of households in the tech sector.
Efforts to enhance women’s access to higher education and vocational training included more scholarships and programs for women in STEM fields. This led to increased enrollment of women in higher educational institutions and a more skilled female workforce. The government also organized workshops and training sessions such as the Azar Project to improve women’s skills, particularly in rural areas. In November 2023, Ensiyeh Khazali, then vice president for Women’s Affairs and Family, emphasized that these programs empower women with new skills, contributing to their economic and social development. Another important project is the Rural Women’s Skills Development Program, which provides training in agriculture and handicrafts, benefiting over 10,000 women in 2022.
The “Women, Life, Freedom” Movement
The “Women, Life, Freedom” movement can also be counted as a major achievement under the Raisi presidency. Although it was brutally suppressed, with the deaths of more than 500 people and thousands of arrests, the campaign emerged as a powerful response to the systemic oppression and gender-based discrimination faced by women in Iran.
The movement gained international attention, leading to expressions of solidarity from numerous international organizations and human rights advocates. While legal and social constraints, economic barriers, health and reproductive rights issues, and digital surveillance remain serious challenges, the resilience and adaptability of Iranian women continue to drive progress.
Maryam Rezaeizadeh serves as a Faculty Assistant and Mentor for Persian House at the University of Maryland. She earned her Master of Public Policy from the University of Maryland School of Public Policy. She has worked with prominent think tanks in the Washington, D.C. area, including the Stimson and Wilson Centers. Her research and academic interests focus on international security and relations, particularly on empowering and advocating for the rights of women and marginalized groups in the Middle East.